ABC Programs     "make work" programs implemented by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during the Great Depression to give relief to the unemployed masses.

Act of admission     A congressional act admitting a United States territory, into the Union as a State.

Administration     The officials and agencies of the executive branch that carries out public policies.

Administrative adjudication     A quasi-judicial process in which a bureaucratic agency settles disputes between two parties in a manner similar to the way courts resolve disputes.

Administrative discretion     The ability of bureaucrats to make choices concerning the best way to implement congressional intentions.

Administrative Law     The body of rules and regulations that regulate administrative (executive branch) agencies.

Admiralty and Maritime Law     The body of law applicable to navigation and commerce on the high seas as well as navigable waterways.

Advisory referendum     A process in which voters cast non-binding ballots on an issue or proposal.

Affiliates     Local television stations that carry the programming of a national network.

Affirmative Action    Those programs which are designed to overcome past discriminatory actions such as providing educational and employment opportunities to members of a specific identifiable group that were previously denied opportunities employment because of racial barriers.

Agenda     A set of problems to which policy makers believe they should be attentive.

Agenda setting     The constant process of forming the list of issues to be addressed by government.

Albany Plan of Union     Plan put forward by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 that aimed at uniting the 13 colonies for trade, military and other purposes; never enacted.

Alien     One who is not a citizen (or national) of the state in which he/she lives.

Ambassador     A personal representative appointed by the head of a nation to represent that nation in matters of diplomacy.

Amendment     The modification of the constitution or a law. Modification may be either formal (written) or informal (unwritten).

Amicus Curiae    A third-party brief on appeal, filed with leave of the appellate court, whose purpose is to support a party or issue on review.

Amnesty     A general pardon offered to a group of law violators.

Anarchy     The total absence of government.

Anti-Federalists    Those individuals who were opposed to the creation of a strong national government in 1787-1788 out of fear that individual and states' rights would be destroyed. (p. 51-52)

Appeasement     The act of making concessions to a political or military rival .

Appellate Court    A higher court that has the authority to review the decisions of lower courts on questions of law.

Appellate jurisdiction     The authority of a court to review decisions of inferior (lower) courts; see original jurisdiction.

Apportionment     The determination and assignment of representation in a legislature body, based on population.

Articles of Confederation     Document by which the first U.S. government was established after the American Revolution; allowed few important powers to the central government.

Articles of impeachment     The specific charges brought against a president or a federal judge by the House of Representatives.

Assessment     The process of determining the value of property for purposes of taxation.

Assigned (Appointed) Counsel System     The facet of the criminal justice system in which criminal defendants who are unable to afford legal representation are provided counsel at state expense.

At-large     Election of an officeholder by the voters of an entire governmental unit (e.g., a State or county) rather than by the voters of a district, a subdivision of that area.

Bail      Money the accused may be required to post (deposit with the court) as a guarantee that he/she will appear in court at the designated time.

Baker v. Carr     The Supreme Court decision that held that congressional district reapportionment may not be used to dilute representation of minorities

Ballot     Device by which a voter registers a choice in an election.

Bankruptcy     Court action to release a person or corporation from unpaid debts.

Bench trial     A trial held without a jury; civil or criminal proceeding at which the judge decides all questions of fact and law.

Bicameralism     A two-house legislature

Bill     A proposal presented to a legislative body, for possible enactment as a law.

Bill of attainder    A legislative act, illegal without a judicial trial, that inflicts punishment on an individual or group for the purpose of suppressing that person or group. (p. 54)

Bill of Rights     The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution guaranteeing specific rights and liberties. (p. 57-58)

Bipartisan    Ppolitics that emphasizes cooperation between the major parties

Blanket primary     A nominating election in which voters may switch from one political party's primary to another on an office-to-office basis; see direct primary.

Block grant     Federal grants to the states and local communities that are for general use in a broad area, such as community development. (page 89)

Boycott      Refusal to buy or sell an opponent's goods in order to influence his/her behavior.

Brief     A document containing the collected legal written arguments in a case filed with a court by a party prior to a hearing or trial. Most often an appellate brief filed with a court of appeals.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka     The Supreme Court decision that declared the doctrine of "separate but equal" unconstitutional.

Bureaucracy     Any large, complex administrative structure; a hierarchical organization with job specialization and complex rules.

Bureaucrat     An appointed government official with defined responsibilities in a bureaucracy who insists on rigid adherence to rules.

Burger Court     The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1969 to 1986 (led by Chief Justice Warren Burger). It was expected that the "Burger Court" would become a conservative court under Warren Burger and reverse many of the liberal rulings of the earlier Warren Court.

Cabinet     Presidential advisory body, traditionally, composed of the heads of the executive departments and other officers the President may choose.

Candidate debates     Forums in which political candidates face each other to discuss their platforms, records, and character.

Capital     Wealth used to produce goods and services.

Capital Punishment     The execution of an individual by the state as punishment for heinous offenses

Capitalism      An economic system in which the means of production are held by an individual for the benefit of that individual

Casework     The process of solving constituents' problems dealing with the bureaucracy.

Categorical grants      Federal grants to states and local communities that are earmarked for specific purposes only, such as pollution control, schools, or hospitals. Also known grants-in-aid. (p. 89)

Caucus      A closed meeting of Democratic Party leaders to agree on a legislative program.

Certificate      A method of putting a case before the United States Supreme Court; used when a lower court is not clear about the procedure or the rule of law that should apply in a given case      and asks the Supreme Court to certify the answer to a specific question.

Certiorari, writ of     Order issued by a higher court directing a lower court to send up the record of a case for its review.

Checks and balances     System of overlapping the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, to permit each branch to check the actions of the others and thus no branch of government may dominate the other; see separation of powers. (p. 47)

Chief administrator     Term for the President as head of the administration of the Federal Government.

Chief citizen     Term for the President as the representative of the people, working for the public interest.

Chief diplomat     Term for the President as the main architect of foreign policy and spokesperson to other countries.

Chief executive     Term for the President as vested with the executive power of the United States.

Chief legislator      Term for the President as architect of public policy and the one who sets the agenda for Congress.

Chief of party      Term for the President as the leader of his or her political party.

Chief of state     Term for the President as the head of the government of the United States, symbol of all the people of the nation.

Citizen     One who owes allegiance to a state and is entitled to its protection.

City council     The legislature in a city government.

Civil law     That body of law relating to human conduct, including disputes between private persons and between private persons and government not covered by criminal law.

Civil liberties     Guarantees of the safety of persons, opinions, and property from the arbitrary acts of government.

Civil rights     Refers to positive acts of government that seek to make constitutional guarantees a reality reality for all; e.g., prohibition of discrimination.

Civil Rights Act of 1964     The legislative act that removed racial barriers in all places vested with a public interest.

Civil service laws     These acts removed the staffing of the bureaucracy from political parties and created a professional bureaucracy filled through competition.

Civil service system     The system created by civil service laws by which many appointments to the federal bureaucracy are made.

Class action suit      A lawsuit filed on behalf of a group of persons with a similar legal claim against a party or individual.

Clear and present danger test     Used by the Supreme Court to draw the line between protected and unprotected speech; the Court looks to see if there is an imminent danger that illegal action would occur in response to the contested speech.

Clientele agency     Executive department directed by law to foster and promote the interests of a specific segment or group in the U.S. population (such as the Department of Education).

Closed primary      Form of the direct primary in which only declared party members may vote; see open primary, direct primary.

Cloture     Procedure that may be used to limit or end floor debate in a legislative body.

Coalition     A union of persons or groups of diverse interests; an alliance of parties for the purpose of forming a government.

Coattail effect     Influence that a popular candidate for a top office (e.g., President or governor) can have on the voters' support of other candidates of his/her party on the same ballot.

Collective good     Something of value that cannot be withheld from a non-interest group member, for example, a tax write-off, a good feeling.

Commander-in-chief     Term for the President as commander of the nation's armed forces.

Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise     An agreement during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 protecting the interests of slaveholders by forbidding Congress the power to tax the export of goods from any State, and, for 20 years, the power to act on the slave trade.

Commerce power     Exclusive power of Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade.

Commission form     Form of city government in which elected commissioners serve collectively as the city council and separately, as heads of the city's administrative department.

Committee chairman     Member who heads a standing committee in a legislative body.

Committee of the Whole     A committee that consists of an entire legislative body; used for a procedure in which a legislative body expedites its business by resolving itself into a committee of itself.

Common law     That body of law made up of generally accepted standards of rights and wrongs developed over centuries by judicial decisions rather than in written statutes.

Commutation      The power to reduce (commute) the length of a sentence or fine for a crime.

Compromise      The process of reconciling competing views and interests in order to find the position most acceptable to the largest number.

Concurrent jurisdiction     Power shared by federal and state courts to hear certain cases.

Concurrent powers     Those powers which are exercised independently by both the national and state governments. (page 78)  Those powers shared by both levels of governments, i.e., state and national. Examples: power to tax, power to borrow, and power to regulate commerce within their own borders. Both the federal and state government collaborate with each other within many geographic spheres.

Concurrent resolution     Measure passed by both houses of a legislature that does not have the force of law nor require the chief executive's approval; often used to express the legislature's opinion or for internal rules or housekeeping.

Concurring opinion     Written explanation of the views of one or more appellate judges who support a decision reached by majority of the court but disagree with the grounds for that decision.

Confederation (Confederated system)     Form of government in which an alliance of independent states creates a central government of very limited power; the member states have      supreme authority over all matters except in those few areas in which they have expressly delegated power to the central government.

Conference committee      Temporary joint committee created to reconcile any differences between the two houses' versions of a bill.

Congressional Budget Office     Set up by the Congress. this office evaluates the cost of legislative proposals.

Congressional oversight     Power used by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy.

Congressionalist     A view of the president's role in the law-making process that holds Article II's provision that the president should ensure "faithful execution of the laws" should be read as an injunction against substituting presidential authority for legislative intent.

Connecticut Compromise (Great Compromise)     Agreement during the Constitutional Convention that Congress should be composed of a Senate, in which the States would be represented equally and a House, in which representation would be based upon a State's population. 

Consensus     General agreement among various groups on fundamental matters.

Consent Decree     An agreement between parties or an individual and a court to modify future behavior or activities along court or regulatory agency guidelines.

Consent of the governed     A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence, that puts the authority of the government in the people's hands.

Conservative     One thought to believe that a government is best that governs least and that big government can only infringe on individual, personal, and economic rights.

Constituents     All persons represented by a legislator or other elected officeholder.

Constitution     Body of fundamental law, setting out the basic principles, structures, processes, and functions of a government and placing limits upon its actions; may be written or unwritten.

Constitutional     Formal limitations on how political power is granted, dispersed, or used within the framework of a government

Constitutional courts     Courts that were formed to carry out the direction in the Constitution so that the Courts would exercise their judicial power.

Constitutional government     A government whose power is limited by a framework of fundamental witten law. (p. 18)

Constitutionalism     Basic principle that government and those who govern are bound by the fundamental law; the rule of law; see limited government.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)     A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.

Content regulation     Governmental attempts to regulate the electronic media.

Continuing resolution     Measure that, when signed by the President, allows an agency to function on the basis of appropriations made the prior year.

Continuous body     Governing unit such as the Senate whose seats are never all up for election at the same time.

Contrast ad     Ad that compares the records and proposals of the candidates, with a bias toward the sponsor.

Convention bump     an increase reflected in presidential preference polls immediately following a party's nominating convention.

Cooperative federalism     Described as various levels of government which are seen as related parts of a single governmental system, characterized more by cooperation and shared functions than by conflict and competition.

Council-manager form     Form of city government with an elected council as the policy-making body and an appointed administrator responsible to the council for the running of the city's government.

County     A major unit of local government in most States; created by the State; principal powers lie in the fields of law enforcement, roads, schools, welfare.

Court Packing     The act of placing members of the same political party on the bench so that opinion of the court will be consistent with the political party's (seen most dramatically with Franklin Delano Roosevelt)

Creative federalism     Developed during President Lyndon Johnson's administration, it was characterized by the Great Society programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs. 

Criminal law     That body of law, passed by both the federal and state governments, that defines crimes and provides for their punishment.

Critical election     An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues.

Cruel and unusual punishment     Doctrine found in the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution that prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive penalties for crimes committed.

Culture of poverty     The establishment of an income level by government that references the point at which an individual is considered to be living in poverty.

Custom duty     Tax (tariff) on goods brought into the United States

De facto segregation     Segregation that exists "in fact," not as a result of laws or governmental actions, i.e., administered by the public; see de jure segregation, segregation.

Declaration of Independence     The formal declaration of the United States' secession from England

Defendant     In a civil suit, the person against whom a court action is brought by the plaintiff; in a criminal case, the person charged with the crime.

Deficit     Yearly shortfall between revenue and spending.

Deficit spending     The government's meeting budgetary expenses by borrowing more money than it can pay back.

De jure segregation     Segregation that exists as a result of some law or governmental action; see      de facto segregation, segregation.

Delegate     Role played by elected representatives who vote the way their constituents would want      them to, regardless of their own opinions.

Delegated powers     Powers which are granted to, and exercised ONLY by the national government. The delegated powers are specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution at Articles I, II, III.  The delegated powers are also known as expressed powers.

Deliberative poll     A new type of poll to bring a representative sample of people together to      discuss and debate political issues in order to provide considered policy suggestions to      lawmakers.

Demands     What people and groups want from the political system (p. 19)

Democracy     System of government in which supreme authority rests with the people; see direct      democracy, representative democracy. (p. 18)

Demagogue     A person who gains power through emotional appeals to the people.

Democrat     A member of the Democratic Party

Denaturalization     Court revocation of naturalized citizenship through due process of law.

Department     A major administrative unit with responsibility for a broad area of government      operations. Departmental status usually indicates a permanent national interest in that particular      governmental function, such as Defense, Health, or Agriculture.

Deportation     Legal process in which aliens are legally required to leave the United States.

Deregulation     The act of reducing or eliminating economic controls

Desegregation     The removal of racial barriers either by legislative acts or by judicial action.

Deterrence     Basic feature of American foreign policy to maintain massive military strength in      order to prevent any attack upon this country or its allies.

Dictatorship     Form of government in which those who rule cannot be held responsible to the will      of the people.

Diplomatic immunity     Practice in international law under which ambassadors and other      diplomatic officials have special privileges and are not subject to the laws of the state to which      they are accredited.

Direct action     Attempts to influence government by civil disobedience, and sometimes by militant      or violent action, for example demonstrations, marches, sit-ins, campus strikes, picketing, and      protest. (p. 15)

Direct democracy     A democratic system of government in which the people participate directly      in decision making.

Direct incitement test     The advocacy of illegal action is protected by the First Amendment      unless imminent action is intended and likely to occur.

Direct initiative     A process in which voters can place a proposal on a ballot and enact it into law      without involving the legislature or the governor.

Direct mailer     A professional who supervises a political campaign's direct mail fund-raising      strategies.

Direct primary     The most widely used method of making nominations in American politics; an      intra-party nominating election at which those who vote choose a party's candidates to run in the      general election; see closed primary, open primary.

Direct (popular) referendum     A process in which voters can veto a bill recently passed in the      legislature by placing the issue on a ballot and expressing disapproval.

Direct tax      A tax that must be paid by the person on whom it is levied; see indirect tax.

Discharge petition     A procedure to bring a bill to the floor of the legislative body when a      committee has refused to report it.

Dissenting opinion     Written explanation of the views of one or more judges who disagree with      (dissent from) a decision reached by a majority of the court; see majority opinion.

Dissolution     Act of dissolving a governing body such as a house of representatives.

Distribution     The question of who wins and who loses from a given public policy (p.21, 53)

Distributive policy     Results in the government giving benefits directly to people, groups, farmers,      and businesses. Typical policies include subsidies, research and development funds for      corporations, and direct government aid for highway construction and education.

District-based election     Election in which candidates run for an office that represents only the      voters of a specific district within the jurisdiction.

Division of labor     Skilled workers each have a specialized function, resulting in increased      productivity.

Division of powers     Basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which      governmental powers are divided on a geographic basis (in the United States, between the      National Government and the States).

Double jeopardy     Trial a second time for a crime of which the accused was acquitted in a first      trial; prohibited by the 5th and 14th Amendments to the United States Constitution.

Draft     Process by which people enter compulsory service in the military.

Dred Scott vs. Sanford     The Supreme Court decision upholding the right of a slave owner to      reclaim his property after the slave had fled into a free state

Dual federalism     The belief that having separate and equally political levels of government is the best arrangement. It is a concept of government under which the Supreme Court saw itself as a referee between two compelling power centers — the states and the federal government — each with its own responsibilities. 

Dual primary     Where presidential candidates are selected and a separate slate of delegates is also voted on. New Hampshire uses this type of primary.

Dualist theory     The theory claiming that there has always been an underlying binary party nature U.S. politics.

Due process/Due Process Clause     The constitutional guarantee that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law." While the specific requirements of due process vary with Supreme Court decisions, the essence of the idea is that people must be given adequate notice and a fair opportunity to present their side in a legal dispute, and that no law or government procedure should be arbitrary or unfair. 

Due process rights     Procedural guarantees provided by the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth  Amendments for those accused of crimes.

Economic interest group     A group with the primary purpose of promoting the financial interests of its members.

Economic protest parties     Political parties rooted in periods of economic discontent.

Economic regulation     Governmental regulation of business practices, industry rates, routes, or areas serviced by particular industries.

Economic stability     A situation in which there is economic growth, rising national income, high employment, and steadiness in the general level of prices.

Eighth Amendment     Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed; nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Elastic Clause     Found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to      make "all laws necessary and proper" to carry out the other defined powers of Congress.

Elector     Member of the electoral college chosen by methods determined in each state.

Electoral college     Group of persons (presidential electors) chosen in each State and the District      of Columbia every four years who make a formal selection of the President and Vice President.

Electorate     All of the persons entitled to vote in a given election.

Electronic media     The newest form of broadcast media, including television, radio, and cable.

Elastic clause     Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution which gives Congress the power to make      all "necessary and proper laws" to carry out the powers of the Constitution. (p. 54)

Eminent Domain     The power of a government to seize private property for public use, usually with compensation to the owner

Enabling act     A congressional act that allows the people of a United States territory to prepare a constitution as a step toward admission as a State in the Union. (p. 82)

Endangered species     Wildlife threatened by extinction, many protected by the Endangered      Species Act.

English Bill of Rights     Drawn up by Parliament in 1689 to prevent abuse of power by English      monarchs; forms the basis for much in American government and politics today.

Entitlement     Benefits that federal law says must be paid to those persons who meet the eligibility      requirements set for those payments.

Entrepreneur     A person who organizes, operates, and assumes the risks of a business enterprise.

Enumerated powers     Enumerated powers are powers that are granted specifically to the three branches of the federal government under the Constitution. Synonomous with delegated powers and expressed powers. (page 77)

Environmental Protection Agency     Regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid      waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)     Federal agency created to enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin,      religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing.

Equal protection clause     Section of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"; has been used to bar discrimination against blacks and women. 

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)     A proposed amendment to the United States Constitution, aimed at ending discrimination against women. The ERA was defeated in 1982. (p. 62)

Equal time rule     The rule that requires broadcast stations to sell campaign air time equally to all candidates if they choose to sell it to any.

Equality     The concept that all people are of equal worth, even if not of equal ability

Equalization     A formula for federal matching requirements that takes into account the state's or community's ability to pay. This process allows poor states and localities to put up relatively less matching money than rich states and localities. 

Equity of Redemption     Judicial solution used when suits for money damages do not provide just compensation

Espionage     Spying for a foreign power.

Establishment Clause     Part of the 1st Amendment prohibiting either the establishment of a religion or the sanctioning of an existing religion by the government.

Estate tax     A tax levied directly on the estate of a deceased person; see inheritance tax.

Ethnocentrism     The belief that one's ethnic group is superior to that of another.

Excise tax     Tax levied on the production, transportation, sale, or consumption of goods or services.

Exclusionary rule     Evidence gained by illegal or unreasonable means cannot be used at the court trial of the person from whom it was seized; based upon Supreme Court interpretation of the 4th and 14th amendments.

Exclusive jurisdiction     Power of the federal courts alone to hear certain cases.

Exclusive powers     Most of the delegated powers; those held by the National Government alone (exclusively) in the federal system.

Executive agreement     Pact made by the President with the head of a foreign state; a binding international agreement with the force of law but which (unlike a treaty) does not require Senate consent.

Executive office of the president     Created by Franklin Roosevelt in 1939; it has four major policy making bodies today - the National Security Council, the Council of Economic Advisors, the Office of Management and Budget, and the Office of National Drug Control Policy.

Executive order     Rules, regulations issued by a chief executive or his/her subordinates, based upon either constitutional or statutory authority and having the force of law.

Executive privilege     The ability of the president to protect personal material.

Exit poll      Poll conducted at selected polling places on Election Day.

Expatriation     Act by which one renounces (gives up) citizenship.

Ex post facto law     Criminal law applied retroactively to the disadvantage of the accused; prohibited by the United States Constitution.

Expressed powers     Those delegated powers of the National Government that are given to it in so many words by the United States Constitution; also sometimes called the "enumerated powers."

Extradition     The constitutional provision which allows a state to request another state to return fugitives. 

Fairness doctrine     Scrapped in 1987, it provided that the media air opposing opinions of the same issue.

Family Medical Leave Act (1993)     Act that gave unpaid emergency medical leave for employees with a guarantee that their job would not be taken away in the interim.

Favorable balance of trade     Refers to a country exporting more than they import. The United States has had an unfavorable balance of trade since World War 11.

Favorite son     The presidential candidate backed by the home state at the party's nominating convention.

Federal budget     Detailed estimate of federal income and outgo during the coming fiscal year, and a work plan for the execution of public policy.

Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA)    In 1971 it set up restrictions on the amount of advertising used by a candidate, created disclosure of contributions over $100, and limited the amount of personal contributions a candidate could make on his or her own behalf In 1974 it set up a Federal Election Commission and established a system of federal matching funds for presidential candidates.

Federal Government, Federalism     Form of government with governmental powers divided between a central government and several regional governments; this geographically based division of powers is made by an authority superior to both the central and the regional governments in the United States, the division of powers between the National Government and the 50 States is made by the Constitution.

Federalism (federal system)     A system of government which allocates power between national and state governments. "Federalism" and "federal system" are used interchangeably. Both national and state governments exercise power over the same geographical area.

Federalists     Those persons who supported the adoption of the Constitution in 1787-1788.

Federalist Papers     Written using the pen name Publius; John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison wrote a series of articles urging the adoption of the Constitution. They argued for establishing a government that could deal with "the tyranny of the majority" by creating three branches of government having distinctive and separate powers. 

Federalist Party     Headed by Alexander Hamilton, this party, made up of the country's upper class, supported a strong national government and set a policy agenda that would solve the nation's economic problems.

Feedback     The response of the rest of society to decisions made by the authorities of a political system.

Fighting words doctrine     Established in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942), the decision incorporated into state law the concept that the government can limit free speech if it can be proved that the result of speech will cause physical violence.

Filibuster     Various tactics (usually prolonged floor debate) aimed at defeating a bill in a legislative body by preventing a final vote on it; often associated with the U.S. Senate; see cloture.

Fifth Amendment     No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Flat tax     An alternative to the progressive income tax where individuals pay the same percentage regardless of how much they earn.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)     Decision that established the precedent that the Supreme Court could rule a state law unconstitutional.

Flexible construction     The principle, established by Chief Justice Marshall in 1819 in McCulloch  v. Maryland, that the Constitution must be interpreted flexibly to meet changing conditions. (p. 54)

Floor leader     Members of the House and Senate picked to carry out party decisions and steer legislative action to meet party goals.

Food stamp program     Federally funded program gives food coupons to low-income people based on income and family size.

Foreign aid     Economic and military aid to other countries as a means of fulfilling foreign political goals.

Foreign policy     The actions and stands that a nation takes in every aspect of its relationships with other countries; everything a nation's government says and does in world affairs.

Formal amendment     A modification in the Constitution brought about through one of four methods set forth in the Constitution.

Formula grants   Grants awarded for specific programs, distrubuted according to community demographic factors, such as population or income. Examples include programs such as Medicaid and Aid for Families with Dependent Children, where applicants automatically qualiify for aid if they meet the requirments.

Fourth Amendment     The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, paper, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be search and the persons or things to be seized.

Franchise     The right to engage in the electing of public office holders; suffrage, the right to vote.

Framers     The group who came together in 1787 to draft the Constitution of the United States.

Freedom of Information Act (1974)     Act that incorporates sunshine laws; opened up the government's meetings of record to the public and media.

Free Exercise Clause     Part of the 1st Amendment guaranteeing to each person the right to believe whatever that person chooses in matters of religion.

Full Faith and Credit   A clause in Artivle IV of the Constitution which requires that each state respect the laws, records and court decisions of another state. In practice, this means that a judgment obtained in a state court in a civil (non-criminal) case must be recognized by the courts of another state. (page 82)

Funded mandates     Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states with federal funds to support them.

Gender gap     a significant deviation between the way men and women vote.

General election     Regularly scheduled election at which the voters choose public officeholders.

General purpose grants     The smallest category of federal grants which may be used by states and local communities mostly as they wish.

General revenue sharing     A controversial program, in effect between 1972 and 1986, in which the federal government rreturned federal tax money to state and local governments to spend without restrictions. Opposition from some members of Congress and the Reagan administration ended the program in 1986. (p. 91)

Gerrymandering     State legislatures, based on political affiliation, create congressional districts, many of which are oddly shaped and favor the political party in power in the state making the      changes.

Gibbon v. Ogden (1824)     Case established the principle that Congress has sole authority over interstate commerce.

Gideon v. Wainwright     The Supreme Court decision holding that all defendants in criminal cases are entitled to legal representation.

Gift tax     Tax imposed on the making of a gift by a living person.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)      Landmark decision in that the Supreme Court incorporated the First Amendment to a state case for the first time.

GOP     Grand old Party; the Republican Party

Government     That complex of offices, personnel, and processes by which a state is ruled, by which its public policies are made and enforced. (p. 16)

Government corporation     Such as the Tennessee Valley Authority, created during the New Deal, having specific responsibilities that facilitate a specific operation of the government.

Grand jury     Body of 12 to 23 persons convened by a court to decide whether or not there is enough probable cause (sufficient evidence) to justify bringing a person to trial; see indictment, information, presentment, petit jury.

Grants-in-aid program     Financial aid granted by one government to another (e.g., by the National Government to the States), with the funds available subject to certain conditions and to be used for certain purposes; see block grants.

Grass roots     Of or from the common people, the average voter; used to describe opinion and pressure on public policy.

Great Compromise     See Connecticut Compromise

Gridlock     Describes people's perception that Congress and the president are in a state of      disagreement that results in little legislation passing.

Habeas corpus, writ of     Court order that a prisoner be brought before the court and that the detaining officer show cause why the prisoner should not be released; designed to prevent illegal arrests and unlawful imprisonments.

Hatch Act (1939)     Law that places restrictions on the kind of political activity a federal employee      may participate in.

High-tech campaign     A major characteristic of the modern presidential campaign. The use of      paid political ads, 30- and 60-second spots, paid infomercials incorporating charts and graphs,      and sophisticated polling techniques have all been used in recent campaigns.

Horizontal federalism   A concept founded on the "full faith and credit" clause of the U.S. Constitution. It describes the relationship between states, as opposed to the relationship between a state and the national government. An example of horizontal federalism is the act of one state recognizing a divorce decree of another state.

Ideological party      Political Party based on a particular set of beliefs, a comprehensive view of      social, economic, and political matters.

Immigration Act of 1991     Act that shifted the quota of immigrants to Europe and aimed to      attract immigrants who were trained workers.

Immunity     Court order granting and individual an exemption from prosecution in exchange for testimony.

Impact     The consequences of a policy, both in its immediate policy area and in other areas. (p. 21)

Impeachment      Formal charge (accusation conduct) brought against a public official by, the lower      house in a legislative body; trial, and removal upon conviction, occurs in the upper house.

Imperial presidency     Term developed by historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr.; refers to presidents      who dominate the political and legislative agenda.

Implementation     The action, or actions, taken by government to carry out a policy. (p. 21)

Implied powers     Powers of the national government that flow from its enumerated powers and the "elastic clause" of the Constitution. (p. 79)

Income tax     A tax levied on individual and corporate income.

Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment     The selective application of the protections of the federal Bill of Rights to the states; this process is also know as incorporation, selective incorporation or absorption. This nationalization of many of the provisions of the Bill of Rights was accomplished mostly through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The incorporation doctrine was introduced in the Gitlow case. It reached a peak during the Warren Court in the late 1950s and 1960s.

Incumbents  Those elected officials who are running for new terms of office.

Independent     A voter who does not identify with or regularly support a particular party.

Independent executive agency     Such as the General Services Administration, which handles      government purchasing and has a specific responsibility that facilitates the day-to-day operation      of the government.

Independent regulatory agencies     Agencies that are quasi legislative and quasi judicial in nature      and operation. Examples include the Food and Drug Administration and Environmental      Protection Agency.

Indictment     Accusation by a grand jury; i.e., a formal finding by that body, that there is probable cause (reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation against a named person to warrant his/her criminal trial.

Indirect tax     Money paid to the government as a result of purchased goods.

In Forma Pauperis     Process by which that indigents bringing cases to the judicial system are      exempt from having to pay regular fees or meet all standard requirements.

Informal amendment     A change made in Constitution not by actual written amendment, but by      the experience of government under the Constitution; the methods include: (1) legislation passed      by Congress; (2) actions taken by the President; (3) decisions of the Supreme Court; (4) the      activities of political parties; and (5) custom.

Infomercials     Paid political commercials usually lasting longer than the average 30- or 60-second      paid political ad.

Information     Formal charge of crime brought against a named person by the prosecutor directly,      rather than by a grand jury; see indictment.

Information superhighway     A linked conglomerate of computer: generated information also      known as the Internet.

Inherent powers     Those delegated powers of the National Government that belong to it simply because it is the national government of a sovereign state. (p. 78)

Inheritance tax     A "death tax" levied on the beneficiary's share of an estate; see estate tax.

Initiative     Petition process by which a certain percentage of voters can put a proposed      constitutional amendment or statute on the ballot for popular approval or rejection.

Injunction     Court order that requires or forbids some specific action.

Interest group     Private organization that tries to influence public policy. (p. 15)

Interim government     Government set up to serve during the transition from a previous      government.

Interest group     A public or private organization, affiliation, or committee that has as its goal the      dissemination of its membership's viewpoint. (p. 15)

Interstate compact     Formal agreements, largely in the form of financial arrangements, which are entered into between states, only with the approval of Congress. Interstate compacts may include the creation of a new multistate administration, (page 83)

Iran-Contra     Presidential scandal during the Reagan administration involving the selling of arms to      Iran so that the profits from these sales could be used to fund the Contras in El Salvador.

Iron triangle     The three-way alliance among legislators, bureaucrats, and interests groups
     to make orpreserve policies that benefit their respective interests.

Item veto     Power held by 43 State governors (but not the President) to eliminate (veto) one or      more provisions (items) in a bill without rejecting the entire measure" see veto.

Jim Crow law     Legislation that legalized segregation even after the adoption of the Fourteenth      Amendment.

Joint committee     Legislative committee composed of members of both houses.

Joint resolution     Legislative measure that must be passed by both houses and approved by the      chief executive to become effective; similar to a bill, with the force of law, and often used for      unusual or temporary purposes.

Judicial Activism     Process of using the power of the bench to broaden the interpretation of the      Constitution.

Judicial federalism     The extension of the Bill of Rights to the citizens of the states, creating a      concept of dual citizenship, wherein a citizen was under the jurisdiction of the national      government as well as state governments.

Judicial restraint     A court that maintains the status quo or mirrors what the other branches of      government have established as current policy.

Judicial review     Derived from the Marbury v Madison decision, it gives the Supreme Court the      power to interpret the Constitution and specifically acts of Congress, the president, and the      states. (p. 48)

Judiciary Act of 1789     The congressional act which set the scope and limits for the federal      judiciary system.

Judiciary committee     Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential      judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.

Jurisdiction     Power of a court to try and decide a case.

Jus sanguinis     Acquisition of American citizenship at birth, because of the citizenship of one or      both parents; the "law of the blood," to whom born.

Jus soli     Acquisition of American citizenship at birth, because of birth in the United States; the      "law of the soil," where born.

Kennedy, John F.     President of the United States; began the Peace Corps

Keynote address     Key speech at the national nominating convention that outlines the themes of      the campaign.

King, Jr., Martin Luther     Civil rights leader who fought for the rights of minorities by the use of      peaceful civil disobedience.

Labor union     Organization of workers who share the same type of job or who work in the same      industry; see interest group.

Lame Duck     Term to described a defeated office holder after that person has lost their reelection, but is still in office until the newly elected official is sworn in.

Legal tender     Any kind of money that a creditor must by law accept in payment for debts.

Libel     Publication (written) of statements that wrongfully damage another's reputation; see slander.

Liberal constructionist     One who believes that the provisions of the Constitution, and in      particular those granting power to government, are to be construed in broad terms.

Limited government     Basic principle of the American system of government; that government is      limited in what it may do, and each individual has certain rights that government cannot take      away; see constitutionalism, popular sovereignty.

Line item veto     The objection to a single item in a piece of legislation by a president; the      president does not have the authority to remove the item, he must accept or reject the legislation      as a whole. Passed by Congress in 1996, declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in      1998. (p. 63)

Literacy     Ability to read and write; tests of literacy once used in several States to prevent voting      by certain groups.

Literacy laws     Declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, they were passed by southern      states after the Civil War aimed at making reading a requirement for voting so that freed slaves      could not vote.

Living will      A legitimate document that can be used to direct a hospital to allow an individual to      direct a medical facility not to use extraordinary means such as life support to keep a patient      alive. The doctrine was declared constitutional in the case of Cruzan v Missouri Department of      Health (1990).

Lobbying     Activities of an agent (lobbyist) for a pressure group, usually to influence public policy.

Lobbyists      The primary instruments of fostering a special interests group's goals to the policymakers. The term comes from people who literally wait in the lobbies of legislative bodies for senators and representatives to go to and from the floor of the legislatures.

Logrolling    A tactic used in Congress that is best illustrated by one legislator saying to another, "I'll vote for your legislation, if you vote for mine."

Loose construction     A liberal interpretation of the Constitution.

Magna Carta     The Great Charter establishing the principle that the power of the monarchy was      not absolute in England- forced upon the king by his barons in 1215, and protecting such      fundamental rights as trial by jury. (p. 37)

Majority opinion     Written statement by a majority of the judges of a court in support of a      decision made by that court.

Majority rule     A concept of government by the people under which everyone is free to vote, but      normally whoever gets the most votes wins the election and represents all the people (including      those who voted for the losing candidate). (p. 18)

Major party     A dominant party in a governmental system (e.g., the Republicans and Democrats      in American politics); see minor party.

Malcolm X     Radical Muslim leader who wanted a total separation of the races.

Mandate      The instructions or commands a constituent gives to its elected officials concerning      policies.

Mapp vs. Ohio     The Supreme Court decision which recognized that evidence seized without a      search warrant cannot be used in court against a defendant.

Marble cake federalism   Refers to the three-layered system of government, i.e., national, state, and local governments.

Marbury v. Madison     The Supreme Court decision which ordered that a writ of mandamus      ordering a judicial appointment be delivered.

Marshall Court     John Marshall's tenure as Chief justice of the Supreme Court, whose leadership      resulted in the landmark decisions of Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and      Gibbons v. Ogden. These cases shifted power to the judiciary and federal government.

Mass media     Those means of communication that reach large audiences, especially, television,      newspapers, radio, and magazines.

Matching funds     Limited federal funds given to presidential candidates that match private donations raised during the campaign.

Matching requirements   A federal requirement that state or local governments must put up some of their own funds in order to get federal money. (page 90)

Maverick      Term to describe a person who holds no party allegiance and has unorthodox      political views

Mayflower Compact     A document, signed by the Pilgrims before they landed just north of Cape      Cod, declaring their determination to live under a rule of law, based on the consent of the people,      and to set up their own government. (p. 37)

Mayor-council government     The most common form of city government in this country,      featuring an elected mayor as chief executive and an elected Council as the legislative body.

McCarthyism     The act of seeking out subversives without cause or need (seen during the 1950s      with Senator Joseph McCarthy in terms of the fear of Communism)

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)     An important 1819 Supreme Court case in which Chief Justice John Marshall's ruling established the key concepts of implied powers, broad construction of the Constitution, and national supremacy. (p. 79)

Media     Means of communicating with people, such as the press, radio, and television.

Medicaid     A shared program between the federal and local governments that covers hospital and      nursing home costs of low: income people.

Medicare     Program that covers hospital and medical costs of people 65 years of age and older      as well as disabled individuals receiving Social Security.

Medium     A means of transmitting information; the singular form of media.

Metropolitan area      Term for the large cities and the surrounding separate (but economically and     socially integrated) communities.

Military-industrial Complex     The assumption that there is an alliance between the military and      industrial leaders.  (p. 25)

Minister     Cabinet member in a parliamentary government.

Minor party     One of the less widely supported political parties in a governmental system; see      major party.

Miranda v. Arizona     Supreme Court decision holding that all persons who are detained or      arrested must be informed of their rights. Constitutional rights include: (1) the right to remain      silent; (2) right not to say anything, otherwise what is said may be used against them in court; (3)      the right to an attorney before questioning begins; (4) appointment of an attorney if they cannot      afford one; (5) the right to bring any questioning to an end at any time.

Misdemeanor     An offense that is less than a felony with punishment ranging from a fine to a short      jail term.

Monarchy      Government with an hereditary ruler.

Monopoly     A firm that is the only source of a product or service.

Motor Voter Act of 1993     Signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to      vote at motor vehicle departments.

Multi-seat district     Electoral districts in which voters choose more than one representative.

Multiparty system      Political system in which three or more major parties compete for public      offices; see one-party, two-party system.

National committee     The governing body of a political party made up of state and national party      leaders.

National nominating conventions     The governing authority of the political party. They give      direction to the national party chairperson, the spokesperson of the party, and the person who      heads the national committee, the governing body of the party. They are also the forums where      presidential candidates are given the official nod by their parties.

Natural rights     Part of Locke's philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and      property. (p. 37)

Naturalization     Process by which persons acquire citizenship.

New Deal     Legislation that provided a safety net for all members of society, such as Social      Security, under Franklin Delano Roosevelt during the Great Depression.

New Democrat     A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a      more conservative, centrist Democrat.

"New Federalism"  President Ronald Reagans effort to restore to state governments the responsibility for making and implementing policies.

New Jersey Plan     Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates      to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states. (p. 44)

Nixon, Richard M.     The only president of the United States to resign after being confronted with      impeachment because of his alleged actions in the Watergate scandal.

Non-preferential primary     Where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the      winning primary candidate.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)     Agreement that called for dramatic      reductions of tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

Obscenity     Any work that taken as a whole appeals to a prurient interest in sex

Oligarchy     Government by the few based on wealth or power

Ombudsman     Person or office that hears formal complaints against the government

Original Jurisdiction     The authority of a court to hear a case being brought up for the first time

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)     Its director, appointed with the consent of the      Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted      to the Congress in January each year. Besides formulating the budget, the OMB oversees      congressional appropriations.

Original jurisdiction     Cases heard by the Supreme Court that do not come on appeal and that      "affect ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a      party."

Outputs     The binding decisions that a political system makes, whether in the form of laws,      regulations, or judicial decisions. (p. 20)

Participation     The bringing of increased numbers of people into the political process. (p. 53)

Partisan     Political opposition drawn along party lines Patronage: dispensing government jobs to      persons who belong to the winning political party

Party caucus     Also known as the party conference, it is a means for each party to develop a      strategy or position on a particular issue.

Party dealignment     A shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent      ideological view of party identification.

Party eras     A time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have      been four major party eras in American history: the era of good feeling, the Republican era      following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the      Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.

Party machine     The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the      means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples.

Party platforms     Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent      the ideological point of view of a political party.

Party realignment     The signaling resulting from a national election or a major shift in the political spectrum and characterized by the start of a party era. Party regulars: enrolled party members who are usually active in the organization of a political party and support party positions and nominated candidates.

"Peace dividend"   Funds allocated to national defense that might be spent on domestic needs because of the end of the Cold War. (p. 86)

Pendleton Act     Known as the Civil Service Act of 1883, it set up merit as the criterion for hiring,      promoting, and firing federal employees.

Penetration     The ability of a government to reach all layers of society in order to carry out public      policies. (p. 53)

Personal property     All property held by an individual excluding real estate.

Petit jury     A trial jury of 12 that sits at civil/criminal cases.

Photo ops     Photo opportunities.

Plaintiff     The party who brings a civil action to court for the purpose of seeking a monetary      remedy.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)     Case that ruled that states had the right to impose "separate but      equal" facilities on its citizens as well as create other laws that segregated the races. Pluralism: a      group theory that involves different groups all vying for control of the policy agenda. No single      group emerges, forcing the groups to compromise. Pocket veto: rejection of legislation that      occurs if the president does not sign a bill within 10 da s and the Congress also adjourns within      the same time

Police Power     Power to regulate persons or property in order to promote health, welfare, and      safety

Political action committees     Known as PACs, they raise money from the special interest      constituents and make contributions to political campaigns on behalf of the special interest group.

Political participation     The different ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process      ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools      that have influenced our elected officials.

Political party     A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common      approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public      policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in      government.

Political Question     Constitutional question that judges refuse to answer because to do so would      encroach upon the authority of Congress or the president.

Political socialization     The factors that determine voting behavior such as family, religion, and      ethnic background.

Policy     A course of action decided upon by government, or by any organization, group, or      individual, that involves a choice among competing interests. (p. 20)

Politics     The pursuit and exercise of power; who gets what, when, how, and why. (p. 17)

Poll tax     The requirement of a person to pay for the right to vote. (p. 60)

Population explosion     The dramatic increase in numbers of people around the world. (p. 23)

Pork barrel legislation     The practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors      their home districts.

Poverty line     References the point at which an individual is considered living in what has been      called a "culture of poverty."

Power     The possession of control over others. (p. 17)

Preamble     The introduction to the Constitution, outlining the goals of the document.

Precedent     Judicial use of prior cases as the test for deciding similar cases.

President pro tempore     Temporary presiding officer of the Senate.

Presidential primary     Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters      and to allocate the number of delegates to the party's national convention.

Price supports     The government's price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government      subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than      let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down.

Prior Restraint     Censorship enacted before the speech, publication, etc., is released to the      general public.

Privileges and immunities     The guarantees that the rights of a citizen in one state will be      respected by other states. Also a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from      abuses by a state.

Probable cause   A set of facts and circumstances that would induce a reasonably intelligent and prudent person to believe that a particular person had committed a specific crime; reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation.

Procedural Due Process     Constitutional requirement that a government proceed by proper      means.

Progressive tax     A tax based upon the amount of money an individual earned, such as an income      tax. Became legal as a result of the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

Prohibited powers   Expressly bar government from specific actions, e.g. state governments cannot coin money, no ex post facto laws or grant titles of nobility.

Public agenda     The subjects that government policymakers try to deal with. (p. 20)

Public law     Includes constitutional law (cases involving constitutional issues), and administrative      law (cases involving disputes over the jurisdiction of public or administrative agencies).

Public opinion polls     Scientific surveys aimed at gauging public preference of candidates and      issues.

Public policy     The final action(s) taken by government in promotional, regulatory, or distributive      form. (p. 20)

Quasi-legislative      A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them legislative      powers to issue regulations.

Ratification      The procedure followed by the states to approve the Constitution and/or its formal      amendments. (pp. 50-52)

Reagan, Ronald R.     President during the 1980s who was involved in the Iran-Contra scandal.

"Reagan Revolution"   A concept was to restore to state governments the responsibility for making and implementing policies. It is additionally a term popularly used to describe the broad spending cuts in social welfare programs instituted by the Reagan administration, beginning in 1981. (p. 84)

Reagan Democrats     traditional Democratic middle: class, voters turning to Ronald Reagan      during the 1980s.

Reapportionment     The process in which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based      on population increases or declines.

Reapportionment Act of 1929     Act that provides for a permanent size of the House and for the      number of seats, based on the census, each state should have.

Red tape     Used to describe the difficulty it takes to get answers from a bureaucratic agency.

Redistributive policy     Policy that results in the government taking money from one segment of      the society through taxes and giving it back to groups in need. It includes such policies as welfare,      Aid to Families with Dependent Children, tax credits for business expenses or business      investment, and highway construction made possible through a gasoline tax.

Referendum      The process whereby a legislative proposal is voted upon by popular vote.

Regressive tax     A tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a      sales tax.

Regulatory policy     Policy that results in government control over individuals and businesses.      Examples of regulatory policy include protection of the environment and consumer protection.

Regulatory federalism   A term used to describe the emergence of federal programs aimed at, or implemented by, state and local governments. (p. 75)

Rehnquist Court     The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1986 to the present (led by Chief William H. Rehnquist). It is marked by its conservative rulings, cutting back on the rights of the accused and expanding the cncept of federalism.

Religious right     An evangelical conglomeration of ultraconservative political activists, many of      whom support the Republican Party.

Remand     To turn over authority of a case.

Representative democracy     Form of government that relies on the consent of the people and is often called a republican government. (p. 18)

Republic     Form of government that derives its powers directly or indirectly from the people, and      those who govern are accountable to the governed.

Republican     Any member of the Republican Party Reserved powers: powers retained by the      states Rebellion: an organized military action designed to replace the existing leaders but maintain      its structures.

Reserved powers     Powers retained by the states, as dictated by the 10th Amendment.

Revolt     A disorganized military action whose purpose is to gain attention for a specific cause.

Revolution     Complete change of the form of government and its former leaders.

Riders     Amendments to bills, often in the form of appropriations, that sometimes have nothing to      do with the intent of the bill itself and many times are considered to be pork barrel legislation.      Safety net: a minimum government guarantee that ensures that individuals living in poverty will      receive support in the form of social welfare programs.

Roe v. Wade     The Supreme Court established a woman's right to an abortion

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano     President of the United States during the Depression and World      War II; most noted for his enactment of New Deal programs such as the Social Security Act

Rule of Four     In order for a case to be heard by the Supreme Court, four justices must agree to      hear the case.

Safe Seat     Electoral office, usually in the legislature, for which the party or incumbent is strong      enough that reelection is almost taken for granted.

Second Treatise of Civil Government     Written by John Locke, it contains the blueprint      principles found in the Declaration of Independence.

Sedition     Conduct/language inciting rebellion against authority of the state.

Select committees     Specially created congressional committees that conduct special      investigations. The Watergate Committee and Iran-Contra investigators were select Senate      committees.

Senatorial courtesy     Policy that gives senators the right to be notified by the chief executive of pending political nominations, usually judicial. Once informed, the approval of the senators from the state from which the judge comes is obtained and the appointment process moves on. This courtesy does not apply to Supreme Court justice nominations. (p. 86)

Seneca Falls Convention     In 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton led the fight for political suffrage and      supported a doctrine very similar in nature to the Declaration of Independence called the      Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions. It became a rallying document in the fight for      women's rights.

Separate but equal     The judicial precedent established in the Plessy v Ferguson decision that      enabled states to interpret the equal protection provision of the Fourteenth Amendment as a      means of establishing segregation.

Separation of church and state     Also known as the "establishment clause," it is part of the First      Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state:      supported religion.

Separation of powers     Originally developed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of Natural Laws      written during the Enlightenment and James Madison in Federalist No. 48, this important doctrine      resulted in the establishment of three separate branches of government: the legislative, executive,      and judicial branches, each having distinct and unique powers. (p. 47)

Shared powers     The fused or overlapping pwoers and functions of the separate branches of      government. (p. 48)

Shay's Rebellion     A failed attempt by Daniel Shay, a farmer who lost his property, to revolt      against the state government.

Simpson-Marzzoli Act (1987)     Act that resulted in more than 2 million illegal aliens who were      living in this country since 1982 being allowed to apply for legal status.

Sixth Amendment     In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.

Slander     Verbal defamation of a person's character.

Social welfare     Entitlement programs such as Social Security and programs such as Aid to      Dependent Children paid for by the federal government.

Solid South     Dominance by the Democratic Party in the South following the Civil War. The      Republicans made strong inroads when Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980 and after      the Republicans gained control of the Congress in 1994.

Sound bites     30 or 60-second statements by politicians aired on the evening news shows or      Sunday morning talk shows.

Speaker of the House     The representative from the majority party in the House of      Representatives who presides over House meetings, recognizes speakers, refers bills to      committees, answers procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes.

Special courts     Courts created by Congress to deal with cases deriving from the delegated      powers of Congress such as military appeals, tax appeals, and veteran appeals.

Standing committees     Committees that deal with proposed bills and also act in an oversight      function. They are permanent, existing from one Congress to the next, such as the House Ways      and Means and Senate Appropriations.

Stare decisis     Latin for judicial precedent, this concept originated in England in the twelfth century      when judges settled disputes based on custom and tradition.

Statutory Law     Law enacted by a legislative body.

Stay     The temporary delay of punishment, usually in capital offenses.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT) Treaty     Agreement signed by President Nixon in      1972 that resulted in the first arms reductions since the nuclear age began. Strategic Arms      Reductions Treaty (START) of 1991: treaty between the United States and Russia that agreed to      major reductions in their nuclear arsenals.

Strict constructionists     Individuals who believe in a conservative interpretation of the Constitution.

Substantive due process     Legal process that places limits related to the content of legislation and      the extent government can use its power to enact unreasonable laws.

Suffrage     The right to vote guaranteed to African Americans in the Fourteenth Amendment and      women in the Nineteenth Amendment.

Super Tuesday     The Tuesday on which a number of primary votes take place, with a heavy      concentration of Southern states voting.

Superdelegates     Democratic party leaders and elected party officials who automatically are      selected as delegates to the National Convention.

Superfund     Legislation that mandated the cleanup of abandoned toxic waste dumps and      authorized premarket testing of chemical substances. It allowed the EPA to ban or regulate the      manufacture, sale, or use of any chemicals that could present an "unreasonable risk of injury to      health or environment," and outlawed certain chemicals such as PCBS.

Supports     The attitudes and actions of people that sustain and buttress the political system at all      levels and allow it to continue to work. (p. 20)

Supremacy clause     Clause that states that "the Constitution, and the laws of the United States...      shall be the supreme law of the land." (p. 46)

Suspect Classification     Racial or national origin classifications created by law and subject to      careful judicial scrutiny

Symbolic speech     Forms of free speech guaranteed under the First Amendment to the      Constitution, such as wearing a black armband to protest a governmental action or burning an      American flag in protest for political reasons.

Tariff     Any tax levied on imported goods

Trial Court     Any court of original jurisdiction that empowers a jury to decide the guilt or liability      of an individual

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)     Act that outlawed the closed union shop and certain kinds of strikes,      permitted employers to sue unions for violations of contracts, allowed the use of injunctions to      stop union activities, and allowed states to adopt right: to: work laws, giving employers more      rights regarding the establishment of union shops. Finally, the act gave the president the right to      step in and prevent a strike by an entire industry, such as the steel or auto industry, if such an      action would threaten the nation's health and safety.

Talking heads     Politicians who use sound bites or other means to present a superficial look at a      policy position rather than an in-depth approach in explaining their views.

Third political parties     Political parties that can be described as ideological, single: issue      oriented, economically motivated, and personality driven. Examples include the Free Soil Party,      Know: Nothings, Populist, and Bull Moose Parties.

Thirty-second spots     Paid political ads 30 seconds in duration.

Three-Fifths Compromise     Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it was      adopted by the delegates and counted every five slaves as three people for representation and      tax purposes.

Trial balloons      Selective leaks aimed at testing the political waters.

Unicameral Legislature     Single-house legislature.

Unitary system     A system of government in which power is concentrated in the central government. (p. 68)

United States v. Nixon     The Supreme Court ruled that material vested with a public interest      could not be withheld from evidence under the rule of executive privilege.

Unfunded mandates     Federal laws that require states to meet certain regulatory standards, but provide no money to help the states comply. Congress enacted a law in 1995 to curtail the practice. (page 75)

Unitary system of government     Type of government that centralizes all the powers of      government into one central authority.

Unwritten Constitution     Traditions, precedent, and practice incorporated into our form of      government that add to the Constitution's elasticity and its viability. Political parties, the      president's cabinet, political action committees, and the federal bureaucracy are important      examples.

Vertical Federalism  Principle that describes the obligations established by the Constitution between the states and the national government.

Virginia Plan     Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to      create a legislature based on the population of each state. (p. 43)

Voting Rights Act of 1965     Act that finally made the Fifteenth Amendment a reality. As a result      of this act, any state not eliminating the poll tax and literacy requirements would be directed to do      so by the federal government. It also resulted in the establishment of racially gerrymandered      congressional districts in the 1980s and 1990s.

Wagner Act     Also called the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, it gave workers involved in      interstate commerce the right to organize labor unions and engage in collective bargaining and      prevented employers from discriminating against labor leaders and taking action against union      leaders.

War Powers Act      1973 act that states that a president can commit the military only after a      declaration of war by the Congress, by specific authorization by Congress, if there is a national      emergency, or if the use of force is in the national interest of the United States. (p. 48)

Warren Court     The description of the United States Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren) from 1953 to 1969 which became the symbol of judicial activitism and which handed down many landmark decisions on desegration, civil rights, First Amendment freedoms, and the rights of criminal defendants

Watergate     The illegal entry and phone monitoring of the Democratic headquarters by members      of the Republican Party.

West Virginia Board of Education vs. Barnette     The Supreme Court decided that      compulsory flag salute in schools is unconstitutional.

Whips     Also known as assistant floor leaders, they check with party members and inform the      majority leader of the status and feelings of the membership regarding issues that are going to be      voted on. Whips are responsible for keeping party members in line and having an accurate count      of who will be voting for or against a particular bill.

White House staff     Managed by the White House Chief of Staff, who directly advises the      president on a daily basis, it includes the more than 600 people who work at the White House,      from the chef to the advance people who make travel arrangements. The key staff departments      include the political offices of the Office of Communications, Legislative Affairs, Political Affairs,      and Intergovernmental Affairs. It includes the support services of Scheduling, Personnel, and      Secret Service and the policy offices of the National Security Affairs, Domestic Policy Affairs,      and cabinet secretaries.

Workfare     An alternative to the traditional welfare, where an individual is trained to work instead      of receiving welfare.

Writ of Appeal     Formal request to have a court review the findings of a lower court.

Writ of certiorari     Latin for "to be made more certain," the process in which the Supreme Court      accepts written briefs on appeal based on the "rule of four" justices voting to hear the case.

Writ of habeas corpus     Court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding      a prisoner in custody. (p. 54)

Writ of Mandamus     Court order directing an official to perform a nondiscretionary or ministerial      act as required by law.

X, Malcolm     Confederation: approach to government that decentralizes power, giving more power to the individual states than to the central government. (see Malcolm X)