Key Terms:

activation; caucus; conversion; direct mail; Federal Election Commission (FEC); Federal Election Campaign Act; Political Action Committees (PACs); regional primaries; reinforcement; selective perception; soft money; state convention; Super Tuesday

I.       THE NOMINATION GAME

A. A nomination is a party's official endorsement of a candidate who will seek political office.

B. Success in the nomination game generally requires money, media attention, and momentum. Candidates attempt to manipulate each of these elements through campaign strategy.

C. The nominating stage is important in the electoral process mostly because nominations set real limits to the choices that voters can make.

D. Deciding to run

1. Campaigns are more strenuous than ever, and many strong (perhaps electable) candidates decide not to run.

2. Unlike Britain — where campaigns are limited by law to five weeks — a presidential candidacy in the United States needs to be either announced or an "open secret" for at least a year before the election.

3. Presidential candidates need to be risk-takers; they need enough self-confidence to put everything on the line in pursuit of the presidency.

a. Presidential candidates need an electoral base from which to begin.

b. Most presidential candidates of major parties hold a key political office before seeking the presidency.

D. Competing for delegates

1. The goal of the nomination game is to win the majority of delegates' support at the national party convention.

2. From February through June of election year, the individual state parties choose their delegates to the national convention through caucuses or primaries.

a. At one time, all states selected their delegates to the national convention in a meeting of state party leaders, called a caucus.

b. Today, caucuses are open to all voters who are registered with the party. The Democrats also require strict adherence to complex rules of representation.

c. As a nominating device, the caucus was replaced by the convention mainly because the caucus limited participation of party members.

d. Only a minority of states hold caucuses today, and the earliest caucus is traditionally held in Iowa.

e. Caucuses are usually organized like a pyramid.

(1) The basic unit for the holding of elections is the precinct. Each precinct has only one polling place, i.e., a place to vote.

(2) Precinct-level caucuses choose delegates (based on their preference for a certain candidate) to attend county caucuses and then congressional district caucuses, where delegates are finally chosen to go on to a state convention.

(3) At the state convention, delegates are chosen to go to the national convention.

f. **** The following party groups are involved in some way or another in nominating candidates for public office: national and state central committees, voters in primary elections, national and state party conventions, and state and local party caucuses. Do not confuse their role with the role of congressional caucuses which have no bearing in the nomination of candidates.

4. Presidential primaries

a. Today, most of the delegates to the national conventions are selected in presidential primaries, in which voters in a state go to the polls and vote for a candidate or for delegates pledged to a candidate.

b. The primary season begins in the winter in New Hampshire. At this early stage, the campaign is not for delegates but for images. A primary in which candidates are not labeled by party is known as a nonpartisan primary. Nonpartisan primaries are mostly held in municipal, i.e., city, elections.

c. In 1988, the southern states (feeling that northern states like New Hampshire had disproportionate influence in the choice of the Democratic nominees) created Super Tuesday by moving all of their primaries to the same day in early March.

d. A wide variety of different procedures is used because state laws (not federal) determine when primaries are held, and each state party sets up its own rules for how delegates are allocated. The detailed provisions of election laws are important to maintain honest and free elections at all levels. Moreover, the integrity of the election process is protected mostly by the detailed body of both federal and state election laws.

e. Primaries serve as elimination contests. Candidates who lose in the early primaries quickly lose the ability to raise the money necessary to win in other states. Candidates want to build momentum, but it is no guarantee of victory. Presidential elections are held in November on the first Tuesday following the first Monday of every fourth year.

(1) An open primary is different from a closed primary because all qualified voters can vote in an open primary.

(2) Arguments in support of a close primary include: it makes candidates more responsive to the party; it discourages "raiding" by non-party members; and, it forces voters to be more thoughtful and choose between parties.

5. Political scientists and commentators have a number of criticisms of the primary and caucus system:

a. A disproportionate amount of attention goes to the early caucuses and primaries. Critics think America's media-dominated campaigns are distorted by early primaries and caucuses.

b. Running for the presidency has become a full-time job, and prominent politicians find it difficult to take time out from their duties to run.

c. Money plays too big a role in the caucuses and primaries.

d. Participation is low and is not representative of the voting population. Although about 50 percent of the population votes in the November presidential election, only about 20 percent cast ballots in presidential primaries. Voters in primaries and caucuses also tend to be better educated and more affluent than voters in general.

e. Primaries and caucuses exaggerate regional factors in decision making.

f. The system gives too much power to the media.

6. The current system also has powerful defenders, including many of the candidates themselves.

a. George Bush has written that the system "brings presidential candidates ... into contact with the flesh-and-blood world."

b. Even losing candidates usually support the process. Senator Paul Simon argues that it is best to start the race in small states where people can meet the candidates face-to-face.

7. Proposals for national and regional presidential primaries

a. Proponents of a national primary to select party nominees believe that this would bring directness and simplicity to the process for both the voters and the candidates. The length and cost of the campaign would be reduced, and concentration of media coverage on this one event would increase political interest and public understanding of the issues involved.

b. Critics of a national primary respond that a national primary would almost inevitably require a runoff election between the top two finishers to avoid having a candidate win with only a plurality of the vote. Big money and intense attention from the national media would become more crucial than ever, and obscure candidates would never have a chance. The runoff primary take place ONLY when no candidate has a majority of the vote.

c. There have also been proposals for regional primaries in which groups of states (such as those in a particular time zone) would vote one week, then another the following week, and so on. The major problem with the regional primary proposal is the advantage gained by whichever region goes first.

8. The convention send-off

a. The "drama" has now been largely drained from conventions, as the winner is usually a foregone conclusion. The preferences of delegates selected in primaries and open caucuses are known before the conventions begin.

b. The parties have also learned that it is not in their best interest to provide high drama — the raucous conventions held by the Republicans in 1964 and the Democrats in 1968 and 1972 exposed such divisiveness that the parties were unable to unite for the fall campaign.

c. Today's conventions are carefully scripted to present the party in its best light. With little news to be made at conventions, fewer people watch them; and the networks have substantially reduced the number of hours of coverage in recent years.

d. Although conventions are no longer very interesting, they are a significant rallying point for the parties.

e. Conventions are also important in developing the party's policy positions and in promoting political representation. Party reformers — especially among the Democrats-have worked hard to make the conventions far more demographically representative than they were in the past.

f. Organization of the conventions:

(1) The highlight of the first day is usually the keynote speech, designed to stimulate interest and build party morale.

(2) The second day centers on the party platform, which is the party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years.

(3) The presidential candidate is chosen by roll-call vote of the states on the third day, following lengthy nominating and seconding speeches.

(4) The vice-presidential nominee is chosen on the convention's final day-also by roll-call vote of the states, but custom dictates that the delegates select whomever the presidential nominee recommends. The vice-presidential and presidential candidates' acceptance speeches are intended to be the highlight of the convention; they draw the battle lines for the coming campaign.

II. THE CAMPAIGN GAME

A. Campaigning today is heavily dependent on technology.

1. Television is the most prevalent means used by candidates to reach voters.

2. Most of the money spent on presidential campaigns is spent on the media. Money is an indispensable campaign resource because it allows candidates to make themselves known to the public.

3. As one of its most important uses, computer technology targets mailings to prospective supporters.

a. The technique of direct mail involves sending information and a request for money to names obtained from lists of people who have supported candidates of similar views in the past.

b. The accumulation of mailing lists enables a candidate to pick almost any issue and write to a list of people concerned about it.

B. Once nominated, candidates concentrate on campaigning for the general election in November.

C. Three ingredients are needed to project the right image to the voters: a campaign organization, money, and media attention.

D. To effectively organize their campaigns, candidates must succeed in numerous key areas:

1. Line up a campaign manager.

2. Get a fund-raiser.

3. Get a campaign counsel.

4. Hire media and campaign consultants.

5. Assemble a campaign staff.

6. Plan the logistics.

7. Get a research staff and policy advisors.

8. Hire a pollster.

9. Get a good press secretary.

E. Campaigns are expensive, and they are growing more so in America's high-tech political arena.

1. Candidates need money to build a campaign organization and to get the message out.

2. There is a common perception that money buys votes and influence. This chapter examines the role of money in campaigns.

3. The biggest drawback of the need for money to campaign for office is that people who cannot get the money are denied the opportunity to get elected.

4. Sources of Campaign Funding

a. Two sources: private contributors and public treasury. Recent campaign finance laws have had a significant impact on both of these sources.

b. Private Givers — The candidates themselves, individual citizens, PACS, and temporary campaign organizations all contribute money to political campaigns. The major source of campaign monies in American politics is private contributions. PACs, which can be formed from interest groups, have increased in numbers in recent years, but can give no more than $5,000 to any one federal candidate. Their obvious aim is to influence elections and public policy decisions.

c. Why People Give — Some give to support candidates and policies they believe in; others want access to government in return for their financial support.

d. Public subsidies — have purportedly had the effect of encouraging more candidates to vie for public office. Moreover, candidates who accept public subsidies are subject to limits on their total campaign spending.

5. In the early 1970s, momentum developed for campaign financing reform.

a. Several public interest lobbies (particularly Common Cause and the National Committee for an Effective Congress) led the drive for reform.

b. Congress passed the Federal Election Campaign Act in 1974 with the goals of tightening reporting requirements for contributions and limiting overall expenditures. Provisions of the act (with subsequent amendments) included:

(1) A bipartisan Federal Election Commission (FEC) was created to administer campaign finance laws and enforce compliance with their requirements. The FEC is an independent agency in the executive branch.

(2) It provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections.

(3) Limits were established for presidential campaign spending.

(4) All candidates must file periodic financial disclosure reports with the FEC, listing who contributed funds and how the money was spent.

(5) It limited contributions, with individual contributions restricted to one thousand dollars.

(6) **** The FEC is NOT concerned with the public funding of congressional elections, but rather, ONLY presidential campaigns.

c. The constitutionality of the act was challenged in the 1976 case of Buckley v. Valeo. The Supreme Court struck down the portion of the act that limited the amount individuals could contribute to their own campaigns-a decision that enabled Ross Perot to spend over $50 million on his own independent presidential candidacy in 1992.

d. In 1979, an amendment to the Act made it easier for political parties to raise money for voter registration drives and campaign material at the grass-roots level. Money raised for such purposes is known as soft money and is not subject to any contribution limits.

e. Impact of the act

(1) Campaign spending reforms have made campaigns more open and honest.

(2) Small donors are encouraged, and the rich are restricted in terms of the money they can give directly to a candidate.

(3) All contribution and expenditure records are open, and FEC auditors try to make sure that the regulations are enforced.

f. Campaign reforms also encouraged the spread of Political Action Committees (PACs).

(1) The 1974 reforms created a new way for interest groups like business and labor to contribute to campaigns. Any interest group can now form its own PAC to directly channel contributions of up to $5,000 per candidate.

(2) A PAC is formed when a business association-or some other interest group-decides to contribute to candidates they believe will be favorable toward their goals. After the group registers with the FEC as a PAC, the PAC can collect money from interested parties and contribute money to candidates. (All expenditures must be accounted for to the FEC.)

(3) PACs have proliferated in recent years and play a major role in paying for expensive campaigns. PACs contributed $178 million to congressional candidates for the 1992 campaign.

(4) Critics of the PAC system believe that this has led to a system of open graft. They fear that the large amount of money controlled by PACs leads to PAC control over what the winners do once they are in office.

(5) However, the perception that PACs control officeholders may be misleading since most PACS give money to candidates who already agree with them. The impact of PAC money on presidential campaigns are partly subsidized by the public and presidents have well-articulated positions on most important issues.

g. Are campaigns too expensive?

(1) Every four years, Americans spend over $2 billion on national, state, and local elections. Although this seems like a tremendous amount of money, campaigns are actually relatively inexpensive when compared with the amount of money Americans spend on items of much less importance.

(2) Many officeholders feel that the need for continuous fund-raising distracts them from their jobs as legislators.

(3) Although some lawmakers support public financing reform, it is felt that incumbents (current office holders) will not readily give up the advantage they have in raising money.

(4) **** With respect to money and politics, interest groups are more likely to contribute to incumbents than to challengers.

h. Does money buy victory?

(1) Money is crucial to electoral victory. In this era of high-tech politics, pollsters, public relations people, direct-mail consultants, and many other specialists are crucial to a campaign.

(2) Perhaps the most basic complaint about money and politics is that there may be a direct link between dollars spent and votes received.

(3) Herbert Alexander refers to "the doctrine of sufficiency" to describe the idea that it is more important to have "enough" money than to have "more" money — enough to compete effectively but not necessarily more money than the opponent.

6. Regulating Campaign Finance

a. The Federal Election Commission (FEC) —  The FEC is an independent agency whose members set limits on campaign contributions and spending, require prompt disclosure of campaign finance data, and administer public funds for parts of the presidential election process. An important function of the FEC is to keep records of all significant campaign contributions to candidates for federal office. The Texas Ethics Commission is the counterpart in the State of Texas. Function of the FEC include:

(1) require the timely disclosure of campaign finance date;

(2) place limits on campaign contributions;

(3) place limits on campaign expenditures, and

(4) **** provide public funding for several parts of the presidential election process, NOT congressional elections.

b. Disclosure Requirements —  Strict laws govern who can contribute to political campaigns, how much each person may give, and how campaign funds may be spent.

c. The Role of PACs — Political Action Committees (PACs) are special-interest groups that have a major stake in public policy. PACs, which have grown rapidly in recent years, may contribute up to $5,000 to any presidential candidate.

d. Limits on Contributions — Federal law limits contributions by individuals. Neither corporations, national banks, nor labor unions are allowed to make direct contributions to candidates for federal office. Foreign contributions to political campaigns are illegal also. Moreover, limits on campaign contributions have been imposed in order to curb the political influence of wealthy persons who are able to donate large amounts of money. The law limit a person's TOTAL contribution to federal candidates and committees to no more than $25,000 in one year.

e. Limits on Expenditures — Federal law limits spending in presidential campaigns. Buckley v. Valero, 1976 U.S. Supreme Court decision striking various provision on First Amendment grounds ("money is speech"). No limits if you do not take federal funds.

f. Public Funding of Presidential Campaigns — Monies for public funding of campaigns are contributed by individual citizens at income-tax time.

g. Preconvention Period — The FEC provides public funds to candidates by matching private, individual contributions. In 1992, limit of $27.6 million. Very complicated formula.

h. National Conventions — Each party automatically receives a grant of public funds to pay for its national convention. Grants of $11 million in 1992.

i. Presidential Campaigns — Major-party nominees automatically qualify for a public subsidy to cover campaign costs. In 1992, Clinton and Bush each got $55.2 million. Soft money excluded. Soft money are funds raised by nation, state, and local party organizations for "party building activities."

F. The media and the campaign

1. Money is crucial in campaigns, and so is media attention.

2. Media coverage is determined by how candidates use their advertising budget and by the "free" attention they get as newsmakers.

3. Almost every logistical decision in a campaign is calculated according to its intended media impact.

4. The most costly items in a typical campaign budget today are television appearances, and no one can do without "the political persuaders" — a new profession of political consultants who can turn a disorganized campaign into a well-run, high-tech operation.

5. The emphasis on public relations worries some observers of American politics, who fear a new era of politics when Madison Avenue will be more influential than Main Street.

6. The networks rarely delve into where the candidates stand on the issues. News coverage is disproportionately devoted to campaign strategies, speculation about what will happen next, poll results, and other aspects of the campaign game.

G. The impact of campaigns

1. Politicians tend to overestimate the impact of campaigns. Political scientists have found that campaigns have three major effects on voters: reinforcement, activation, and conversion. Campaigns can reinforce voters' preferences for candidates; they can activate voters, getting them to contribute money or become active in campaigns; and they can convert by changing voters' minds.

2. Campaigns primarily reinforce and activate. Only rarely do campaigns convert because several factors tend to weaken campaigns' impact on voters:

a. People have a remarkable capacity for selective perception paying most attention to positions they already agree with and interpreting events according to their own predispositions.

b. Although party identification is not as important as it once was, such factors still influence voting behavior.

c. The act of political participation performed by most people is voting in a presidential election. Click here to see results of ALL presidential elections.

d. There is a misconception that a person's vote doesn't count, hence the excuse NOT to cast a vote. Click here to view interesting anecdotes on the value of "one" vote.

H. Incumbents start with a substantial advantage in terms of name recognition and an established record. More important, a strong party candidate, whether the incumbent or challenger, may draw votes to the party ticket in what is known as the "coattail effect."

III. UNDERSTANDING NOMINATIONS AND CAMPAIGNS

A. Impact of nominations and campaigns on democracy

1. The American political system allows citizens a voice at almost every point of the election process, unlike many countries where a political elite controls nominations and elections, As a result, party outsiders can get elected in a way that is virtually unknown outside the United States.

2. The process has also led to what some call "the permanent campaign." Some analysts believe the process of openness places numerous demands on citizens; many are overwhelmed by the process and do not participate.

3. The burdens of the modern campaign can also discourage good candidates from entering the fray.

4. The current system of running for office has been labeled by Wattenberg as the "candidate-centered age." It allows for politicians to decide on their own to run, to raise their own campaign funds, to build their own personal organizations, and to make promises as to how they specifically will act in office.

B. Do big campaigns lead to an increased scope of government?

1. Because states are the key battlegrounds of presidential campaigns, candidates must tailor their appeals to the particular interests of each major state.

2. Candidates end up supporting a variety of local interests in order to secure votes from each region of the country.

3. The way modern campaigns' are conducted is thus one of the many reasons why politicians always find it easier to expand the scope of American government than to limit it.

Chief Justice Richard Barajas
Advanced Placement U.S. Government and Politics
Cathedral High School, El Paso, Texas
Last updated: March 15, 2000